Translations and languages
Geographical borders, linguistic borders and cultural borders do not always coincide. For practical reasons I have classified the proverbs only according to the languages and the countries they originate from. ‘As far as possible’ needs to be added here: sometimes sources only mentioned the country (e.g. Nigeria), or the region (e.g. West Africa), or only the language: e.g. English, a language spoken in many countries, or Uyghur (spoken partly in China and partly in the Russian Federation), or Bengali, spoken in India and in Bangladesh. Some ancient civilizations, such as Mesopotamia, or the Roman Empire, have disappeared altogether, and their languages are dead, but their proverbs survived. The alphabetical list of languages mentions all the countries where the languages are spoken (or were spoken, such as Sumerian or Latin), so that readers can easily relate even the lesser-known languages to their respective contexts of origin.
The proverbs have been translated as literally as possible. I have checked unclear translations and meanings with knowledgeable native speakers and/or specialists in the cultural field concerned. Sometimes a word has been added in square brackets for reasons of clarity. It regularly occurs that proverbs exist in more than one language, and those languages have been added in round brackets. Even though the more than fifteen thousand proverbs collected here originate from almost 300 languages and at least 150 countries, this is only a modest first inventory of all there is. Millions more proverbs could of course have been collected and studied, but the selection here is a reasonable first sample that mirrors a fair profile of women’s representations in proverbs worldwide.
List of languages
- Abazin – Russian Federation
- Abkhaz – Georgia, Russian Federation, Turkey
- Acholi – Uganda, Sudan
- Adangme – Ghana
- Adyghe – Russian Federation
- Afar – Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia
- Afrikaans – South Africa
- Allagish – Turkey
- Agmari – India
- Akan – see Ashanti
- Akkadian – Mesopotamia
- Albanian – Albania, Italy, Macedonia, Turkey
- Amharic – Ethiopia
- Andrah – India
- Arabic – Middle East (e.g. Iraq, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Yemen), Maghreb (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia), other Muslim countries, Spain
- Armenian – Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, other parts of former USSR
- Ashanti/Asante (Twi, Akan language group) - Ghana, Ivory Coast
- Assam – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India
- Awar – Russian Federation, Azerbaijan
- Azeri – Azerbaijan, Iran
- Baatomun – Benin, Nigeria
- Bambara – Mali, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, and several other West African areas
- Bamum – West Africa (e.g. Cameroon)
- Bari – Sudan
- Bashkir – Russian Federation
- Bassar – Cameroon, Togo
- Basque – France, Spain
- Baule – Ivory Coast
- Bedouin – Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Yemen
- Belorussian – Belarus, Lithuania
- Bemba – Zambia, Congo DR, Tanzania
- Bembe – Congo PR
- Bengali – Bangladesh, India
- Berber – several areas in Northern Africa (e.g. Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia)
- Beti – Cameroon
- Bhojpuri – India
- Bihari – India, Nepal
- Bisa – Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo
- Bulgarian – Bulgaria, parts of Greece, Moldova, Romania, Ukraine
- Bulu – Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon
- Buryat – Russian Federation, Mongolia
- Burmese – Myanmar
- Catalan – Andorra, France, Spain
- Chagga – Tanzania, East Africa
- Chechen – Russian Federation
- Cherkess – Russian Federation
- Chewa – Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe
- Chinese – China, Taiwan
- Chaungtha – see Khiongtha
- Chuvash – Russian Federation, Estonia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan
- Creole – Bahamas, Belize, Dominican Republic, French Antilles, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Marie-Galante, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago (NB: the various countries and areas have their own Creole languages. Thus Haitian Creole differs from Trinidadian Creole, etc)
- Croatian – see Serbian/Croatian
- Czech – Czech Republic, Serbia and Montenegro
- Danish – Denmark
- Dargin – Russian Federation
- Digor (dialect of Ossetian) – Russian Federation
- Dolgan – Russian Federation
- Duala – Cameroon
- Dutch – Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, Netherlands Antilles, Suriname
- Efik – Nigeria
- Egyptian, Ancient – Ancient Egypt
- English – Australia, Canada, Caribbean, Antigua and Barbuda, Hawaii, Jamaica, Ireland, New Zealand, Philippines, UK, USA, many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa
- Estonian – Estonia and surrounding regions
- Fang – Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon
- Filipino (Tagalog) – Philippines
- Finnish – Finland
- Fiote – Angola and Cabinda, Congo DR, Gabon
- Flemish – Belgium
- Fon – Benin, Togo
- Frafra – Ghana, Burkina Faso
- French – Belgium, Canada, France, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, USA, many countries (formerly) governed by France
- Frisian – Netherlands, Germany
- Fulfulde – West Africa (e.g. Nigeria, Senegal; also spread as far as Sudan)
- Ga – Ghana
- Gagauz – Moldova, Russian Federation
- Galla – see Oromo
- Ganda – Uganda
- German – Austria, Germany, Switzerland, USA (Pennsylvania)
- Gikuyu/Kikuyu – Kenya
- Giryama – Kenya
- Greek – Greece
- Georgian – Georgia, Israel
- Guaraní – Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay
- Hausa – West Africa (e.g. Niger, Ghana, Togo, Burkina Faso, Mali, and as far as Sudan)
- Haya – Tanzania, Uganda
- Hebrew – Israel (and spoken by Jews elsewhere in the Middle East, e.g. in Iraq, Morocco, Turkey, Yemen etc, and elsewhere in the world at large)
- Hehe – Tanzania
- Hindi – India
- Hungarian – Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Yugoslavia and Montenegro
- Icelandic – Iceland
- Igbo – Nigeria
- Ikwere – Nigeria
- Ila – Zambia
- Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia) – Indonesia
- Inuit, Inuktitut – CanadaIrish – Ireland
- Italian – France (including Corsica), Italy, Switzerland
- Jaba – Liberia, Nigeria
- Japanese – Japan
- Kabardino-Cherkess – Russian Federation, Turkey
- Karachay-Balkar – Russian Federation, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgysztan, Uzbekistan
- Kalmuk – Russian Federation
- Kamba – Kenya
- Kanuri – Niger, Nigeria
- Karakalpak – Russian Federation, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
- Karelian – Russian Federation
- Kashmiri – India, Pakistan
- Kazakh – Afghanistan, China, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan
- Khakass/Chakas – Russian Federation
- Khmer – Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam
- Khiongtha – Bangladesh, India
- Kirghiz – Afghanistan, China, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan
- Komi – Russian Federation
- Kongo/Kikongo – Congo DR
- Korean – China, North and South Korea, Japan
- Krio – Sierra Leone
- Kru – Ivory Coast, Liberia
- Kumyk – Russian Federation, Turkey, Kazakhstan
- Kundu – Benin, Cameroon, Chad, Central African Republic, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria, Togo
- Kurdish – Armenia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey
- Kweli – Cameroon
- Ladino – spoken by Sefardic Jews in the Balkans, Middle East (e.g. Libya, Iraq, Israel), Maghreb (e.g. Morocco, Tunisia), Greece, Turkey
- Lak – Russian Federation
- Lao – Laos
- Latin – former Roman Empire
- Latvian – Latvia
- Lega – Congo DR
- Letzeburgish – Luxembourg
- Lezgian – Azerbaijan, Russian Federation
- Lingala – Congo DR
- Lithuanian – Lithuania
- Lokaniti – Myanmar
- Luba – Congo DR
- Lunda – Angola, Congo DR, Zambia
- Luo – Kenya, Uganda
- Macedonian – Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia
- Makua – Mozambique
- Malagasy – Madagascar and adjacent islands
- Malay – Malaysia
- Malayalam – India
- Maltese – Malta
- Mamprusi-Mampruli – Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo
- Mandinka – West Africa (e.g. Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Senegal)
- Maori – Cook Islands, New Zealand
- Mapuche – Argentina, Chile
- Marathi – India
- Masai, Maasai – East Africa (e.g. Kenya, Tanzania)
- Mboshi – Congo PR
- Mende – Liberia, Sierra Leone
- Minangkabau – Indonesia, Malaysia
- Minyanka – Mali
- Moldovan/Moldavian – Moldova
- Mongo – Congo DR
- Mongolian – China, Mongolia
- Moore, see Mossi
- Moorish – Algeria, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Spain
- Mordvin – Russian Federation
- Mossi/Moore – West Africa (e.g. Burkina Faso)
- Multani – India, Pakistan
- Nama – Namibia
- Nandi – Kenya
- Ndebele – South Africa, Zimbabwe
- Nenets – Russian Federation
- Neo-Aramaic – Iraq
- Nepali/Nepalese – Bhutan, Nepal
- Ngaka Bali-Nyonga (dialect of Mungaka) – Cameroon
- Ngbaka – Central African Republic
- Ngwana – Congo DR
- Nubian/Nobiin – Sudan, Egypt
- Nogay – Russian Federation
- Norwegian – Norway
- Nubian/Nobiin – Egypt, Sudan
- Nyanja – Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia
- Oromo – Ethiopia, Kenya
- Ossetian – Georgia, Russian Federation
- Ovambo – Angola, Namibia
- Palaung – China, Myanmar
- Papiamentu – Aruba, Caribbean, Netherlands Antilles, Suriname
- Pashto/Pashtu – Afghanistan, Pakistan
- Persian – Iran
- Pidgin (i.e. Jamaican Pidgin) – Jamaica (NB Various countries have their own Pidgin languages)
- Polish – Poland
- Portuguese – Brazil, Portugal including (former) Portuguese colonial territories, Spain
- Punjabi – India, Pakistan
- Quecha – Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru
- Rajasthani – India
- Romanian – Moldova, Romania
- Ronga – Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe
- Rundi – Burundi
- Russian – Russian Federation and other former republics of USSR/sovjet sphere of influence
- Rwanda/Kinyarwanda – Burundi, Congo DR, Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania
- Sanskrit – India
- Sara – Central African Republic, Chad, Sudan
- Scottish – UK
- Sena – Malawi, Mozambique
- Senufo – Ivory Coast, Mali, Burkina Faso
- Serbian – see Serbian/Croatian
- Serbian/Croatian (now known as Serbian, Croatian or Bosnian, depending on the ethnicity of the speaker) – Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Yugoslavia and Montenegro
- Shona – Zimbabwe
- Shor – Russian Federation
- Sinhalese – India, Maldives, Sri Lanka
- Slovak – Slovakia
- Slovenian – Austria, Italy, Slovene
- Somali – Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia
- Songye – Congo DR
- Sorbian – Germany
- Sotho – Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa
- Spanish – both Americas (e.g. Antigua and Barbuda,
- Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, Venezuela), Morocco, Philippines, Spain including Canary Islands
- Sranan/Sranantongo – Aruba, Netherlands, Netherlands Antilles, Suriname
- Sukuma – Tanzania
- Sumerian – Mesopotamia
- Swahili – East Africa (e.g. Congo DR, Kenya, Tanzania, Zanzibar)
- Swedish – Finland, Sweden
- Swiss – Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Switzerland
- Tagalog – see Filipino
- Tajik – Afghanistan, China, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan
- Tamashek – West Sahara
- Tamil – India, Sri Lanka
- Tangut – China
- Tatar – Bulgaria, China, Romania, Russian Federation, Turkey
- Tati – Azerbaijan, Iran, Russian Federation
- Telegu – Bahrain, Fiji, India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Singapore
- Thai – Thailand
- Tibetan – Buthan, India, Nepal, Tibet
- Tigrinya – Ethiopia, Eritrea
- Tiv – Nigeria
- Tonga – Zambia, Zimbabwe
- Tsonga – South Africa, Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe
- Tswana – Botswana, South Africa
- Tumbuka – Malawi, Zambia
- Turkish – Cyprus, Turkey, also elsewhere in Europe and the Middle East
- Turkmen - Turkmenistan
- Twi – see Ashanti
- Udmurt – Russian Federation
- Ukrainian – Ukraine
- Umbundu – Angola
- Urdu – India, Pakistan
- Uyghur – China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russian Federation, Uzbekistan
- Uzbek – Afghanistan, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
- Vai – Liberia, Sierra Leone
- Venda – South Africa
- Vietnamese – Vietnam
- Welsh – UK (Wales)
- Wolof – Gambia, Senegal
- Woyo – Congo DR
- Xhosa – South Africa
- Yaka – Congo DR
- Yakut – Russian Federation
- Yiddish – most countries with a Jewish population in Europe (e.g. Netherlands, Russian Federation), Israel
- Yoruba – Benin, Nigeria, Togo
- Zulu – South Africa, Swaziland
